Thursday, April 9, 2026

3GPP Release 19 Description and Summary of Work Items

As the journey towards 3GPP Release 20 and 6G (3GPP Rel-21) continues to gather pace, the recently concluded Release 19 comes with a clearer view of what the next phase of 5G evolution, often referred to as 5G-Advanced, will look like in practice. One of the most useful artefacts in this process is the recently published technical report 3GPP TR 21.919, which offers a consolidated snapshot of the features and work items currently shaping this release.

Rather than focusing on detailed specifications, this report takes a step back and provides accessible summaries of the agreed work items. Each summary is intended to answer two simple but important questions: what problem is being addressed, and what impact the feature will have on the overall system. This makes the document particularly valuable not only for specialists deeply involved in standardisation work, but also for a broader audience trying to keep track of where the industry is heading.

It is worth noting that this is still very much a work in progress (50% complete). At the time of publication, just over 60 summaries have been included, with many more expected in future updates. Even so, the current version already highlights the sheer breadth of activity in Release 19, spanning everything from energy efficiency and non-terrestrial networks to AI, immersive services, and advanced radio capabilities.

In this post, I will not attempt to reinterpret or condense the summaries themselves. Instead, I am sharing the full list of topics covered in the report below, which provides a useful index into the areas that 3GPP worked on as part of Release 19.

It should be noted that the technical report (TR) presents the "initial state" of the Features introduced in Release 19, i.e. as they are by the time of publication of this document. Each Feature is subject to be later modified or enhanced, over several years, by the means of Change Requests (CRs). To further outline a feature at a given time, it is recommended to retrieve all the CRs which relate to the given Feature, as explained in its Reference section. 

Below is the list of all topics covered in this report. Some of the topics may be missing a summary, which will be added later in the later updates.  

5 Rel-19 Energy Efficiency, Energy Saving
5.1   Enhancements of Network energy savings for NR
5.2   Low-power wake-up signal and receiver for NR (LP-WUS/WUR)
5.3   Energy Efficiency as Service Criteria

6   Rel-19 Satellite (5GSAT), NTN, UAS, Aerial
6.1   Satellite access Phase 3
6.1.1   Security Aspects of 5G Satellite Access Phase 3
6.1.2   Charging aspects of satellite access Phase 3
6.2   Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN) for NR Phase 3
6.3   Enhancements for Air-to-ground network for NR
6.4   Inter-RAT mode mobility support from E-UTRAN TN to NR NTN
6.5   Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN) for Internet of Things (IoT) Phase 3 (for LTE)
6.6   Introduction of IoT-NTN TDD mode
6.7   Enhanced requirements and test methodology for NR NTN and IoT NTN
6.8   On-demand broadcast of GNSS assistance data
6.9   Uncrewed Aerial System Phase 3
6.10   Support for PWS in Satellite E-UTRAN and Satellite NG-RAN
6.11   Introduction of BDS (BeiDou Navigation Satellite System) B2b Signal in A-GNSS for LTE and NR
6.12   Introduction of A-GNSS support for NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation) L1 SPS (Standard Positioning Service) in NR & LTE
6.13   Management Aspects of Rel-18's NTN Phase 2
6.14   Lower Selection-priority for PLMN Selection
6.15   New LTE band for 5G broadcast for region 3 utilizing a geosynchronous satellite
6.16   Satellite band-related items
6.16.1   Introduction of Ku bands for NR NTN
6.16.2   Introduction of additional operating NR bands for HAPS (High Altitude Platform Station)
6.16.3   Introduction of another NR NTN S-band (MSS band 2000-2020 MHz UL and 2180-2200 MHz DL)
6.16.4   New NR NTN bands to support Extended L-band and combined MSS L-band and Extended L-band ranges
6.16.5   Introduction of another IoT-NTN S-band (MSS band 2000-2020 MHz UL and 2180-2200 MHz DL)

7   Rel-19 Internet of Things (IoT) and Reduced Capability (RedCap) UE
7.1   NR power class 2 RedCap (Reduced Capability) UE in FR1
7.2   NAS layer overhead reduction for data transfer using CP CIoT
7.3   Management Aspects of RedCap features

8   Ambient power-enabled Internet of Things (IoT)
8.1   Ambient power-enabled Internet of Things (IoT) (SA and CT)
8.1.1   Charging for Ambient power-enabled Internet of Things
8.1.2   Security Aspects of Ambient IoT Services in 5G for Isolated Private Networks
8.2   Solutions for Ambient IoT (Internet of Things) in NR

9   Rel-19 Artificial Intelligence (AI)/Machine Learning (ML)
9.1   AI/ML Model Transfer Phase 2
9.2   Core Network Enhanced Support for Artificial Intelligence (AI)/Machine Learning (ML)
9.3   Application enablement for AI/ML services
9.4   Artificial Intelligence (AI)/Machine Learning (ML) for NR air interface
9.5   Artificial Intelligence (AI)/Machine Learning (ML) for NR air interface
9.6   Enhancements for Artificial Intelligence (AI)/Machine Learning (ML) for NG-RAN
9.7   AI/ML Management Phase 2
9.8   Protocol for AI Data Collection from UPF

10   Rel-19 Verticals and Non Public Network
10.1   Rel-19 Enhancements of 3GPP Northbound and Application Layer Interfaces and APIs
10.2   SEAL DD (Data Delivery) Phase 2
10.3   Common Application Programming Interface (API) Framework (CAPIF) Phase 3
10.4   Enhanced OAM for management service exposure to external consumers through CAPIF
10.5   Non-Public Network (NPN) security considerations
10.6   Security for PLMN hosting a NPN
10.7   Interconnect of SNPN
10.8   ProSe support in NPN

11   Rel-19 communications services
11.1   Media Messaging Enhancements
11.2   Terminal Audio quality performance and Test methods for Immersive Audio Services, Phase 2
11.3   EVS Codec Extension for Immersive Voice and Audio Services, Phase 2
11.4   5GMSG Service phase 3
11.5   Video Operating Points - Harmonization and Stereo MV-HEVC
11.6   Advanced Media Delivery
11.7   5G Real-time Transport Protocol Configurations, Phase 2
11.8   Next Generation Real time Communication services Phase 2
11.8.1   System architecture for Next Generation Real time Communication services Phase 2
11.8.2   Security support for the Next Generation Real Time Communication services Phase 2
11.8.3   Application enablement aspects for MMTel

12   Rel-19 XR (eXtended Reality), Augmented Reality (AR), Metaverse, Edge Computing
12.1   Localized Mobile Metaverse Services
12.2   Extended Reality and Media
12.3   XR (eXtended Reality) for NR Phase 3
12.4   Avatar Communications in AR Calls
12.5   Split rendering over IMS
12.6   Enhancement of support for Edge Computing in 5G Core network - Phase 3
12.7   Edge Computing for Industrial Scenarios
12.8   Edge Computing Considering the Operational Needs of Service Hosting Environment
12.9   Architecture for enabling Edge Applications Phase 3

13   Rel-19 High Power UEs (HPUE)
13.1   Rel-19 High power UE (power class 1.5 or 2) for NR intra-band CA or NR inter-band CA/DC band combinations with/without NR Supplementary Uplink (UL)
13.2   Rel-19 High power UE (power class 1.5 and 2) for NR FR1 TDD/FDD single band for handheld/FWA UEs, and high power UE operation (power class 1) for FWVM (fixed-wireless/vehicle-mounted) use cases in a single NR band
13.3   Introduction of Power Class 2 and UE 40MHz Channel Bandwidth in NR band n28
13.4   Rel-19 High power UE (power class 1.5 or 2) for DC combinations of LTE band(s) and NR band(s)
13.5   Rel-19 High power UE (power class 2) and high power operation (power class 1) for fixed-wireless/vehicle-mounted use cases in a single LTE band

14   Rel-19 RAN topology
14.1   5G NR Femto
14.2   Additional topological enhancements for NR
14.3   Vehicle Mounted Relays Phase 2

15   Rel-19 Sidelink, Proximity
15.1   NR sidelink multi-hop relay
15.2   UE-to-UE multi-hop relay
15.3   NR Sidelink: Intra-band Carrier Aggregation in ITS band
15.4   Charging Aspects of Ranging and Sidelink Positioning
15.5   Multi-path relay
15.6   Proximity-based Services in 5GS Phase 3

16   NR and LTE Dual Connectivity (DC)
16.1   UE RF enhancements for NR FR1/FR2 and EN-DC, Phase 4
16.2   Support of intra-band non-collocated EN-DC/NR-CA deployment Phase2: new receiver type(s)
16.3   Rel-19 downlink interruption for NR and EN-DC band combinations at dynamic Tx Switching in Uplink
16.4   Rel-19 DC of x LTE band(s), y NR band(s) (1<=x<6, 1<=y<6, x+y<=6) and single or two NR Supplementary Uplink (SUL) bands
16.5   Simultaneous Rx/Tx band combinations for NR CA/DC, NR SUL and LTE/NR DC in Rel-19
16.6   UE Conformance - Rel-19 NR CA and DC; and NR and LTE DC Configurations

17   Rel-19 Other NR and LTE Radio
17.1   Adding channel bandwidth(s) support to existing NR bands and CA/ENDC combinations in REL-19
17.2   Data collection for SON (Self-Organising Networks)/MDT (Minimization of Drive Tests) in NR standalone and MR-DC (Multi-Radio Dual Connectivity) Phase 4

18   Rel-19 NR Radio
18.1   NR mobility enhancements Phase 4
18.2   Evolution of NR duplex operation: Sub-band full duplex (SBFD)
18.3   NR Radio Resource Management (RRM) Phase 5
18.4   Multi-carrier enhancements for NR Phase 3
18.5   NR demodulation performance Phase 5
18.6   NR MIMO Phase 5
18.7   FR1 TRP, TRS and MIMO OTA testing enhancement Phase 3
18.8   Rel-19 NR CA/DC for x bands DL with y bands UL (x<7, y<3) and SUL/CA band combinations with a single SUL or two SUL cells
18.9   Low band carrier aggregation via switching
18.10  NR channel BW less than 5MHz for FR1 Phase 2
18.11  mmWave in NR: UE spurious emissions and EESS (Earth Exploration Satellite Service) protection
18.12  NR base station (BS) RF requirement evolution for FR1/FR2 and testing
18.13  UE Conformance - New Rel-19 NR licensed bands and extension of existing NR bands
18.14  Other band-related items
18.14.1   7MHz Channel Bandwidth for n26 and n5
18.14.2   Introduction of the NR FDD 1.4 GHz band
18.14.3   Introduction of NR bands n87 and n88
18.14.4   Introduction of NR band n68
18.14.5   Additional NR bands for NR features in Rel-19
18.15  Study on spatial channel model for demodulation performance requirements for NR

19   Rel-19 LTE Radio
19.1   LTE-based 5G Broadcast Phase 2
19.2   Rel-19 LTE-Advanced Carrier Aggregation for x bands (1<=x<= 6) DL with y bands (y=1, 2) UL
19.3   Band-related items
19.3.1   New bands for LTE based 5G terrestrial broadcast for early deployments
19.3.2   Introduction of LTE FDD band in 1800–1830 MHz for Canada

20   Rel-19 Mission Critical, eCall, Emergency
20.1   Enhanced Mission Critical Architecture
20.2   Enhanced Mission Critical Location Management
20.3   Alignment of eCall over IMS with CEN
20.4   UE Conformance - Alignment of eCall over IMS with CEN
20.5   Multiple Location Procedure for Emergency LCS Routing
20.6   Multimedia Priority Service (MPS) for Messaging services
20.7   Mission Critical (MC) services for generic support on Isolated Operation for Public Safety (IOPS) mode of operation
20.8   Sharing of administrative configuration between interconnected MC service systems
20.9   Future Railway Mobile Communication System (FRMCS) Phase 5
20.10   Mission critical security enhancements for release 19
20.11   Protocol enhancements for Mission Critical Services

21   Rel-19 Network Slicing
21.1   Network Controlled Network Slice Selection

22   Rel-19 Service-Based Architecture (SBA)
22.1   UPF enhancement for Exposure And SBA Phase 2
22.2   Automatic Certificate Management Environment (ACME) for the Service Based Architecture (SBA)
22.3   Reducing Information Exposure over SBI
22.4   Service Based Interface Protocol Improvements Release 19

23   Rel-19 QoS and Policy
23.1   Rel-19 Enhancements of UE Policy
23.2   Rel-19 Enhancements of Session Management (SM) Policy
23.3   Minimize the Number of Policy Associations
23.4   Spending Limits for UE Policies in Roaming scenario
23.5   Enhancing Parameter Provisioning with static UE IP address and UP security policy
23.6   Providing per-subscriber VLAN instructions from UDM and DN-AAA
23.7   QoS monitoring enhancement

24   Rel-19 multi-access
24.1   Upper layer traffic steering and switching over dual 3GPP access
24.2   Multi-Access (ATSSS_Ph4)
24.3   ATSSS Rule Provisioning via 3GPP access connected to EPC
24.4   Local traffic routing for multi-access UE

25   Other topics
25.1   Deferred 5GC-MT-LR Procedure for Periodic Location Events based NRPPa Periodic Measurement Reports
25.2   Subscription control for reference time distribution in EPS
25.3   Rel-19 IMS:
25.3.1   PS Data Off for IMS Data Channel Service
25.3.2   IMS Disaster Prevention and Restoration Enhancement
25.3.3   IMS Stage-3 IETF Protocol Alignment
25.4   Identifying non-3GPP Devices Connecting behind a UE or 5G-RG
25.5   Integrated Sensing and Communication
25.6   Rel-19 Application Data Analytics Enablement Service
25.7   Interworking of Non-3GPP Digital Terrestrial Broadcast Networks with 5GS Multicast Broadcast Services
25.8   Minimization of Service Interruption During Core Network Failure Phase 2
25.9   Measurement Data Collection
25.10  Enhanced application layer support for location services
25.11  NF discovery and selection by target PLMN
25.12  MSISDN verification operation support to Nnef_UEId Service
25.13  Rel-19 Enhancements of Network Automation Enablers
25.14  Enhancement of controlling RAT utilization
25.15  CT Aspects for IP Domain usage
25.16  Indirect Network Sharing
25.17  Management of Network Sharing Phase 3
25.18  Roaming Value-Added Services
25.19  Monitoring of signalling traffic in 5G
25.20  Roaming traffic offloading via session breakout in HPLMN
25.21  Stage-3 5GS NAS protocol development 18
25.22  Stage-3 SAE Protocol Development
25.23  Harmonization of test case definitions for cross-RAT usability
25.24  Data management regarding subscriptions and reporting
25.25  PRU Usage Extension supported by Core Network

26   Rel-19 miscellaneous Security
26.1   Security Assurance Specification for maintenance of 5G features
26.2   5G Security Assurance Specification (SCAS) for the Unified Data Repository (UDR)
26.3   5G Security Assurance Specification (SCAS) for the Short Message Service Function (SMSF)
26.4   Addition of 256-bit security Algorithms
26.5   Addition of Milenage-256 algorithm
26.6   Roaming and interconnect authorization aspects in indirect communication
26.7   Public key distribution and Issuer claim verification of the Access Token
26.8   3GPP profiles for cryptographic algorithms and security protocols
26.9   Mobility over non-3GPP access to avoid full primary authentication
26.10  LI Handling of Protected Services
26.11  Lawful Interception Rel-19
26.12  Lawful Interception Guidance Rel-19
26.13  Specification of example algorithm for alternative f5* (f5**) function

27   Rel-19 miscellaneous OAM&charging
27.1   Charging aspects for Multi-Operator Core Network (MOCN) Network Sharing
27.2   Service Based Management Architecture enhancement phase 3
27.3   Management Data Analytics phase 3
27.4   Intent driven management services for mobile network phase 3
27.5   Management of planned configurations
27.6   Management aspects of Network Digital Twins
27.7   Closed Control Loop Management
27.8   Data management phase 2
27.9   5G performance measurements and KPIs phase 4
27.10  5G Advanced NRM features phase 3
27.11  Subscriber and Equipment Trace and QoE collection management
27.12  Management of IAB nodes
27.13  Enhancement of Management Aspects Related of NWDAF Phase 2
27.14  CHF Segmentation
27.15  Subscriber Data Migration

You can download the latest version of the specs from here.

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Thursday, March 26, 2026

3GPP Study on Modernization of Specification Format and Procedures for 6G (6GSM)

The development of each new mobile generation is not only about new technologies and capabilities. It also requires evolution in the way standards themselves are created, maintained and consumed. As work on 6G gradually begins to take shape, the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) has started examining whether the tools and processes used to write its specifications are still fit for purpose.

One of the first steps in this direction is the study titled Study on Modernization of Specification Format and Procedures for 6G (6GSM), documented in TR 21.802. The study looks at how the current approach to specification development works, the limitations that are becoming more visible as specifications grow larger and more complex, and the possible directions for modernising the process as the industry prepares for the 6G era.

3GPP specifications form the backbone of the mobile industry. They define how networks, devices and services interoperate across the globe. However, the way these specifications are produced has largely remained unchanged for many years. Today, most specifications are created and maintained using document based workflows centred around Microsoft Word and DOCX files. Delegates submit Change Requests that modify the text of these documents, and editors manually merge the approved changes into updated specification versions. This approach has served the industry well for decades because it is familiar, widely supported and easy for participants to understand.

The study recognises that the current workflow has several strengths. The document format provides a consistent structure across thousands of specifications. Contributors can edit content directly using familiar WYSIWYG tools, review tracked changes, include diagrams and tables, and collaborate during meetings by editing documents in real time on shared screens. These capabilities have helped large groups of experts work together efficiently during standardisation meetings.

At the same time, as specifications grow larger and more complex, the limitations of the current approach are becoming more visible. One of the most obvious challenges is the heavy reliance on manual processes. Change Requests must be merged into specifications by editors, which can introduce delays before updated versions are published. When multiple Change Requests modify the same sections of a document, identifying conflicts or inconsistencies can be difficult.

Scale is another factor. Many technical specifications now run into hundreds or even thousands of pages. Opening, searching or editing such large DOCX files can become slow and occasionally unstable. Large tables, embedded diagrams and complex formatting further increase file sizes and processing overhead.

Understanding how a feature evolves across specification versions can also be difficult for readers and implementers. Engineers often need to trace how a particular capability has changed between releases, but linking the final specification text back to the relevant Change Requests or understanding the context behind changes is not always straightforward.

The document format itself also presents challenges for automated processing. Extracting structured information from DOCX files requires significant preprocessing because textual content is mixed with binary elements such as images and embedded objects. This makes it harder for tools to analyse specifications or automate parts of the development workflow.

Navigation across specifications is another area where improvements could help. Many features are defined across multiple technical specifications produced by different working groups. Following references between documents or understanding how procedures interact across specifications can take time and effort, especially for engineers who are new to the standards.

To address these challenges, the study explores a number of alternative specification formats that could be considered for future work. Options such as OpenDocument, AsciiDoc, Markdown and LaTeX are discussed, along with more structured or restricted DOCX based approaches. Some proposals also consider hybrid models where different formats could coexist while maintaining a single authoritative source.

Text based markup formats such as Markdown or AsciiDoc are particularly interesting because they separate content from presentation. This structure can make version control and automated processing easier. These formats are widely used in software development environments and integrate well with modern collaboration tools that track changes and manage contributions from multiple participants.

LaTeX is another potential option, particularly for documents that require complex technical formatting or mathematical expressions. Meanwhile, restricted DOCX approaches attempt to preserve compatibility with existing workflows while enforcing stricter formatting rules to reduce complexity and improve consistency.

Beyond the document format itself, the study also looks at broader improvements to the way specifications are developed and maintained. One important idea is the use of modern version control systems such as Git. These systems are widely used in software development and allow contributors to track changes in detail, manage parallel development branches and merge updates in a more controlled manner. Applying similar workflows to standards development could improve traceability and help identify conflicts earlier.

The study also highlights the potential for automated validation tools that could check Change Requests for formatting errors, missing references or structural inconsistencies before they are submitted. Such tools could reduce the editorial workload while improving the overall quality and consistency of specifications.

Another possible direction is the use of machine readable formats for structured elements within specifications. Interfaces, protocol definitions or data models could be stored separately in structured files and then referenced or generated automatically within the main specification. This approach could reduce duplication and make it easier for implementers to reuse information directly in development environments.

The modernisation study does not recommend a single solution at this stage. Instead, it provides a detailed analysis of the current situation and explores possible directions for future work. Any transition will need to balance the benefits of new tools and formats with the practical realities of the existing ecosystem. The 3GPP community relies on a large set of established workflows, tools and expertise, and maintaining accessibility for all participants will be important.

As the industry moves towards 6G, the scale and complexity of specifications will continue to grow. Ensuring that the processes used to create and manage these specifications evolve alongside the technologies themselves will be essential. In that sense, modernising specification formats and procedures may become an important step in preparing the standards ecosystem for the next generation of mobile innovation.

If you want to learn more about this, check out:

  • 6G Specification Modernization discussions from Nokia & Ericsson here.
  • Ongoing 6GSM Workshop discussions here.
  • 3GPP TR 21.802: Study on modernization of specification format and procedures for 6G here.

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Tuesday, March 3, 2026

Strengthening Critical Infrastructure Security with OSINT

Cybersecurity conversations in telecoms often focus on IT systems, cloud platforms and enterprise networks. Yet beyond the data centres and mobile cores lies another domain that is arguably even more critical to society. Industrial Control Systems (ICS) and Operational Technology (OT) environments underpin the power plants, water treatment facilities, railways, petrochemical sites and manufacturing plants that keep daily life running. These environments are increasingly in the crosshairs of cyber attackers.

A comprehensive YouTube course titled OSINT for ICS and OT brings much needed attention to this area. Created by Mike Holcomb, the 10 plus hour course explores how Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) can be used to better understand, assess and protect ICS and OT environments. For anyone working in telecoms infrastructure, utilities, transport or industrial sectors, this is highly relevant material.

Mike focuses on the practical reality that there are still relatively few accessible and high quality resources dedicated to OT and ICS cybersecurity. While IT security has matured with abundant training paths, certifications and community support, the world of control systems security remains comparatively underserved. That gap is particularly concerning given the importance of critical infrastructure to national resilience and economic stability.

In his channel overview, Mike explains that his work is aimed at a broad audience. It includes IT cybersecurity professionals looking to pivot into OT security, engineers already working in industrial environments who want to strengthen their defensive posture, and owners or operators who are building or refining a cybersecurity programme for their facilities. This inclusive approach reflects the multidisciplinary nature of OT security, where engineering, networking and cybersecurity disciplines intersect.

The turning point for many in this field was the discovery of Stuxnet, the first widely known cyber weapon designed to disrupt industrial processes. The malware specifically targeted centrifuges in a uranium enrichment facility, manipulating physical processes while masking its actions from operators. For Mike, learning about Stuxnet sparked a deeper curiosity about how control systems function inside power plants and other facilities, and how they can be secured. That same question remains highly relevant today.

For readers of The 3G4G Blog, there is a natural connection. As telecom networks evolve towards 5G, private networks and future 6G systems, connectivity is extending deeper into industrial domains. Smart grids, connected factories and digitalised transport systems rely on robust communications as well as secure control environments. The boundary between IT and OT continues to blur. Understanding how adversaries might gather intelligence about exposed assets, misconfigurations or vulnerable systems using open sources is therefore a critical skill.

The OSINT for ICS and OT course aims to demystify that process. It looks at how publicly available information can reveal insights about industrial environments and how defenders can use the same techniques proactively. Rather than waiting for an incident, organisations can identify potential weaknesses and exposure before an attacker does. This proactive mindset aligns closely with modern security best practice across both telecom and industrial sectors.

Another important aspect is accessibility. The course is freely available on YouTube, lowering the barrier to entry for those who may be curious about OT security but unsure where to start. In a domain where specialist training can be expensive and difficult to find, open educational content plays a valuable role in building community knowledge and capability.

Critical infrastructure protection is not a niche concern. It affects the electricity that powers base stations, the water that cools data centres and the transport systems that support supply chains. As cyber threats continue to evolve, the need for professionals who understand both networking and industrial control environments will only grow.

For those interested in expanding their horizons beyond traditional telecom security and into the protection of the systems that underpin modern society, this course is well worth exploring. It is encouraging to see experienced practitioners sharing knowledge openly and helping to strengthen resilience across critical infrastructure sectors.

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Tuesday, February 3, 2026

Seven AI Concepts Shaping Network Intelligence

AI has become so deeply embedded in our everyday working lives that it is no longer limited to data science teams or research labs. In telecoms, AI now plays a central role in network planning, optimisation, assurance and automation. As a result, the industry is rapidly absorbing a growing set of AI-related terms and concepts, many of which are directly relevant to how networks are evolving towards higher levels of autonomy.

I recently came across the video embedded below, which provides clear explanations of seven AI terms that are becoming increasingly important in the context of network intelligence and autonomous networks. Some of these concepts are already being applied in operational networks today, while others point clearly towards the direction of travel for AI-native 5G Advanced and 6G systems.

The video begins with Agentic AI, a concept that aligns closely with the telecom industry’s vision for autonomous networks as defined in 3GPP. Unlike traditional AI models that respond to a single prompt, AI agents can perceive their environment, reason about next steps, take action and observe the outcome in a continuous loop. In practical terms, this maps well to closed-loop automation use cases such as self-healing, energy optimisation, dynamic resource allocation and intent-driven network management.

Closely related are Large Reasoning Models, which are designed to work through problems step by step rather than producing an immediate response. This capability is particularly relevant for telecom networks, where decisions often span multiple domains, layers and vendors. As AI systems take on greater responsibility for operational decisions, reasoning-based models become essential for safe and explainable automation.

The video then moves to more foundational enablers, starting with Vector Databases. Telecom networks generate vast volumes of unstructured data, including logs, alarms, performance metrics, configuration data and documentation. Vector databases allow this information to be searched and correlated based on semantic meaning rather than simple keywords, enabling more context-aware and intelligent AI systems.

This naturally leads to Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG), which is already gaining traction in telecom operations. By combining large language models with operator-specific data sources such as standards, network documentation or operational procedures, RAG helps ground AI outputs in trusted information. This is particularly important in network operations, where accuracy and reliability are critical.

Another important concept discussed is the Model Context Protocol (MCP), which addresses how AI models interact with external tools and systems. For telecom operators, standardised mechanisms for AI access to network management systems, data platforms and orchestration tools could significantly simplify integration and accelerate the deployment of AI-driven automation across the network lifecycle.

The video also touches on Mixture of Experts (MoE) models, which provide a more efficient way to scale AI by activating only the parts of a model needed for a specific task. This approach is especially relevant for telecom use cases where compute efficiency, latency and energy consumption are key constraints, particularly as AI capabilities move closer to the edge of the network.

Finally, the video briefly discusses Artificial Superintelligence (ASI). While ASI remains theoretical, it is often referenced in long-term discussions around AI evolution. For the telecom industry, it serves as a reminder of the rapid pace of change and the importance of governance, trust and control as networks become increasingly autonomous and software-driven.

Overall, this video offers a useful technical refresher on AI concepts that are already shaping the development of network intelligence, autonomous operations and AI-native architectures. For anyone working on 5G Advanced, autonomous networks or early 6G thinking, these are terms that are quickly becoming part of the industry’s everyday vocabulary.

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Tuesday, January 20, 2026

Telecom Security Realities from 2025 and Lessons for 2026

Telecom security rarely stands still. Each year brings new technologies, new attack paths, and new operational realities. Yet 2025 was not defined by dramatic new exploits or spectacular network failures. Instead, it became a year that highlighted how persistent, patient and methodical modern telecom attackers have become.

The recent SecurityGen Year-End Telecom Security Webinar offered a detailed look back at what the industry experienced during 2025. The session pulled together research findings, real world incidents and practical lessons from across multiple domains, including legacy signalling, eSIM ecosystems, VoLTE vulnerabilities and the emerging world of satellite-based mobile connectivity.

For anyone working in mobile networks, the message was clear. The threats are evolving, but many of the core problems remain stubbornly familiar.

A Year of Stealth Rather Than Spectacle

One of the most important themes from the webinar was that 2025 did not bring a wave of highly visible disruptive telecom attacks. Instead, it was characterised by quiet, low profile intrusions that often went undetected for long periods.

Operators around the world reported that attackers increasingly favoured living-off-the-land techniques. Rather than deploying noisy malware, intruders looked for ways to gain legitimate access to core systems and remain hidden. Lawful interception platforms, subscriber databases such as HLR and HSS, and internal management platforms were all targeted.

The primary objective in many cases was intelligence collection. Attackers were interested in call data, subscriber information and network topology rather than immediate disruption. This shift in motivation makes detection far more difficult, as there are often few obvious signs of compromise.

At the same time, automation has become a defining feature on both sides of the security battle. Operators are investing heavily in AI and machine learning to identify abnormal behaviour. Attackers are doing exactly the same, using automation to scale phishing campaigns and to accelerate exploit development.

Despite all this technology, basic security discipline continues to be a major challenge. A significant proportion of incidents still originate from human error, poor operational practices or simple failure to apply patches. The industry continues to invest billions in cybersecurity, but much of that effort is consumed by reporting and compliance activities rather than direct threat mitigation.

eSIM Security Comes into Sharp Focus

The transition from physical SIM cards to eSIM and remote provisioning is one of the most significant structural changes in the mobile industry. It offers clear benefits in terms of flexibility and user experience. However, the webinar highlighted that it also introduces entirely new security concerns.

Traditional SIM security models relied heavily on physical control. Fraudsters needed access to large numbers of real SIM cards to operate at scale. With eSIM, many of those physical constraints disappear. Remote provisioning expands the number of parties involved in the connectivity chain, including resellers and intermediaries who may not always operate under strict regulatory oversight.

During 2025 several major SIM farm operations were dismantled by law enforcement. These infrastructures contained tens of thousands of active SIM cards and were used for large scale fraud, smishing campaigns and automated account creation. While such operations existed long before eSIM, the technology has the potential to make them even easier to deploy and manage.

Research discussed in the session pointed to additional concerns. Analysis of travel eSIM services revealed issues such as cross-border routing of management traffic, excessive levels of control granted to resellers, and lifecycle management weaknesses that could potentially be abused by attackers. In some cases, resellers were found to have capabilities similar to full mobile operators, but without equivalent governance or transparency.

The conclusion was not that eSIM is inherently insecure. The technology itself uses strong encryption and robust mechanisms. The problem lies in the wider ecosystem of trust boundaries, partners and processes that surround it. Securing eSIM therefore requires cooperation between operators, vendors, regulators and service providers.

SS7 Remains a Persistent Weak Point

Few topics in telecom security generate as much ongoing concern as SS7. Despite being a technology from a previous era, it remains deeply embedded in global mobile infrastructure. The webinar dedicated significant attention to why SS7 continues to be exploited in 2025 and why it is likely to remain a problem for many years to come.

Throughout the year, media reports and research papers continued to demonstrate practical abuses of SS7 signalling. Attackers probed networks, attempted to bypass signalling firewalls and looked for new ways to manipulate protocol behaviour. Techniques such as parameter manipulation and protocol parsing tricks were highlighted as methods that can sometimes evade existing protections.

One particularly interesting demonstration showed how SS7 messages could be used as a covert channel for data exfiltration. By embedding information inside otherwise legitimate signalling transactions, attackers can potentially move data across networks without triggering traditional security alarms.

Perhaps the most striking point raised was how little progress has been made in eliminating SS7 dependencies. Analysis of global network deployments showed that only a handful of countries operate mobile networks entirely without SS7. Everywhere else, the protocol remains a foundational element of roaming and interconnect.

As a result, even operators that have invested heavily in 4G and 5G security can still be undermined by weaknesses in this legacy layer. The uncomfortable reality is that SS7 vulnerabilities will continue to be exploited well into 2026 and beyond.

VoLTE and Modern Core Network Risks

While legacy protocols remain a problem, modern technologies are not immune. VoLTE infrastructure in particular was identified as an increasingly attractive target.

VoLTE relies on complex interactions between signalling systems, IP multimedia subsystems and subscriber databases. Weaknesses in configuration or interconnection can open the door to call interception, fraud or denial of service. Several real world incidents during 2025 demonstrated that attackers are actively exploring these paths.

The move toward fully virtualised and cloud-native mobile cores also introduces new operational challenges. Telecom networks now resemble large IT environments, complete with the same risks around misconfiguration, insecure APIs and exposed management interfaces.

The Emerging Security Challenge of 5G Satellites

One of the most forward-looking parts of the webinar focused on non-terrestrial networks and direct-to-device satellite connectivity. What was once a concept for the distant future is rapidly becoming a commercial reality.

Satellite integration promises to extend 5G coverage to remote areas, oceans and disaster zones. However, it also changes the security model in fundamental ways. Satellites can act either as simple relay systems or as active components of the mobile radio access network. In both cases, new threat vectors emerge.

Potential issues discussed included the risk of denial of service against shared satellite resources, difficulties in applying traditional radio security controls in space-based equipment, and the possibility of more precise user tracking due to the way satellite systems handle location information.

Experts from the space cybersecurity community explained how vulnerabilities in mission control software and ground segment infrastructure could be exploited. Much of this software was originally designed for isolated environments and is only now being connected to wider networks and the internet.

As telecom networks expand beyond the boundaries of the Earth, security responsibilities extend with them. Operators will need to think not only about terrestrial threats but also about risks originating from space-based components.

The Human Factor and the Skills Gap

Technology was only part of the story. Another recurring theme was the global shortage of skilled telecom cybersecurity professionals.

Studies referenced in the session suggested that millions of additional specialists are needed worldwide, yet only a fraction of that demand can currently be filled. Many security teams are overwhelmed by the sheer volume of alerts and data they must process.

This shortage has real consequences. When teams are stretched thin, patching is delayed, anomalies are missed and complex investigations become difficult to sustain. The panel emphasised that throwing more tools at the problem is not enough. Organisations must focus on training, automation and smarter operational processes.

Automation and AI-driven analysis were presented as essential enablers. Given the scale of modern mobile networks, it is simply not feasible for human analysts to monitor every signalling protocol, every core interface and every emerging technology manually.

Preparing for 2026

Looking ahead, the experts agreed on several broad trends. Attacks on legacy systems such as SS7 will continue. Fraudsters will increasingly target eSIM provisioning processes. VoLTE and 5G core components will face growing scrutiny. Satellite-based connectivity will introduce new and unfamiliar security questions.

Perhaps most importantly, the line between traditional telecom security and general cybersecurity will continue to blur. Mobile networks are now large, distributed IT platforms, and they inherit all the complexities that come with that transformation.

Operators, regulators and vendors must therefore adopt a holistic view. Investment must go beyond compliance reporting and focus on practical defences, real time monitoring and collaborative intelligence sharing.

Final Reflections

The SecurityGen webinar provided a valuable snapshot of an industry at a crossroads. Telecom networks are becoming more advanced and more capable, but also more complex and interconnected than ever before.

2025 demonstrated that attackers do not always need new vulnerabilities. Often they succeed simply by exploiting old weaknesses in smarter ways. The challenge for 2026 is to close those gaps while also preparing for the technologies that are only just beginning to emerge.

For those involved in telecom security, the full discussion is well worth watching. The complete webinar recording can be viewed below:

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Wednesday, December 31, 2025

Top 10 Posts for 2025

As we come to the end of another busy year, it is time once again to look back at what readers found most interesting on The 3G4G Blog. This year we again crossed over 3 million views, the same as last year, which shows the consistently strong interest in mobile technology, standards, and real-world deployments.

With well over 2,000 blog posts now published since the blog began in 2007, it is always fascinating to see which topics continue to attract attention. Some posts reflect the latest developments, while others are long-standing fundamentals that engineers, students, and professionals still search for regularly.

Regardless of when they were published, these were the top 10 most-read posts on the blog this year:

  1. 3GPP Release 18 Description and Summary of Work Items, Aug 2024
  2. 5G-Advanced Store and Forward (S&F): Enabling Resilient IoT Communications via Satellite, Apr 2025
  3. VoLTE Bearers, Aug 2013
  4. Difference between SDU and PDU, Mar 2009
  5. Network Slicing using User Equipment Route Selection Policy (URSP), Nov 2021
  6. LTE to 3G Handover Procedure and Signalling, Mar 2011
  7. Introduction to 5G ATSSS - Access Traffic Steering, Switching and Splitting, Nov 2019
  8. Interesting Pic: Blackberry Evolution, Jul 2010
  9. New 5G NTN Spectrum Bands in FR1 and FR2, May 2023
  10. What is RF Front-End (RFFE) and why is it so Important?, Jan 2022

It is interesting, although not entirely surprising, that a mix of 3GPP standards content, mobility procedures, and radio fundamentals continues to dominate the rankings. Posts written more than a decade ago still feature strongly, which highlights how many people continue to rely on them for reference and learning.

At the same time, more recent topics such as 3GPP Release 18, 5G-Advanced, and NTN show where industry activity and curiosity are heading as networks continue to evolve.

In addition to the 5G-Advanced Store and Forward (S&F) blog post, which was comfortably the most-read new post this year, the next most popular posts published in 2025 were:

  1. AI/ML in 3GPP: Progress, Challenges, and the Road to 6G, Mar 2025
  2. Understanding L1/L2 Triggered Mobility (LTM) Procedure in 3GPP Release 18, Aug 2025
  3. The Evolution of 3GPP 5G Network Slice and Service Types (SSTs), Jul 2025

AI and Machine Learning, mobility optimisation, and network slicing all remain strong areas of interest as the industry continues to mature 5G and look ahead to the next generation.

A big thank you to everyone who reads, comments, shares, and supports the blog. Whether you have been following since the early 3G days or discovered the site more recently, your continued engagement is what keeps it going.

Here is to another year of learning, sharing, and exploring the evolving world of mobile and wireless technology.

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Thursday, December 18, 2025

Transport Networks Holding Modern Mobile Architectures Together

When people talk about mobile networks, the conversation almost always starts with the air interface. Spectrum, waveforms, MIMO, antennas and radios dominate conference agendas, white papers and training courses. After that comes the RAN, then the core, and occasionally backhaul is given a brief mention. What sits quietly in the middle of all this, often taken for granted, is the transport network. Yet without a well designed transport layer, even the most advanced radio and core architecture struggles to deliver on its promises.

Transport networks are the connective tissue of mobile communications. They carry traffic between radio sites, aggregation layers, edge and regional data centres, and the core network. As highlighted in the accompanying Mpirical video, transport is not a single homogeneous network but an end to end topology made up of multiple architectural domains, each with different performance, scale and resilience requirements.

At the core of the network, transport is typically built using highly resilient designs such as full mesh or spine and leaf architectures. These environments are already operating at hundreds of gigabits per second per link, with clear evolution paths towards terabit scale throughput. This part of the network rarely gets attention from mobile engineers, yet it underpins everything that follows. If the core transport layer cannot scale, the rest of the mobile network inevitably hits a ceiling.

Moving closer to the cell site, the transport network transitions into metro and aggregation domains. Here, spine and leaf or ring based topologies are commonly used, supporting large numbers of high capacity connections while also providing access to edge and regional data centres. This is where transport starts to intersect directly with mobile architecture decisions. The placement of edge computing platforms, local breakout, and centralised RAN functions all depend on the capabilities of this aggregation layer.

Closer still to the access network, transport designs often shift again. Ring, star or chain topologies are frequently used to connect clusters of cell sites, with capacities that reflect both traffic demand and economic constraints. Although fibre is the dominant medium, especially for 5G, it is rarely the only one. Microwave, integrated access and backhaul, and even non terrestrial technologies play an increasingly important role in extending coverage and improving resilience where fibre is impractical or unavailable.

The importance of transport becomes even clearer when viewed through the lens of disaggregated RAN and cloud based architectures. With gNodeB functions split into remote radio units, distributed units and centralised units, transport is no longer just backhaul. It becomes fronthaul and midhaul as well, each with distinct latency, synchronisation and bandwidth requirements. Centralised units may sit deep in the network, served by high capacity backhaul, while distributed units are connected via midhaul rings and radios are attached using star or ring topologies at the very edge.

This architectural shift exposes a common blind spot. Many performance issues blamed on the RAN are in fact rooted in transport limitations. Synchronisation accuracy, latency variation and resilience all depend heavily on transport design and operation. Packet based transport, while flexible and cost effective, places strict demands on timing and quality that cannot be treated as an afterthought.

As networks move towards 5G standalone, private networks and early 6G concepts, transport will become even more tightly coupled with service delivery. Network slicing, deterministic performance and edge driven applications all rely on a transport layer that can offer predictable behaviour rather than best effort connectivity. This pushes transport out of the shadows and into the critical path of mobile network design.

The 5G Transport Network Topology video as follows:

For mobile engineers, the message is clear. Understanding the air interface will always be essential, but it is no longer enough. Transport networks shape where functions can be placed, how services perform, and how networks scale over time. The video embedded alongside this post provides a useful visual reminder that mobile networks are not just radios and cores connected by invisible links. Transport is a network in its own right, and it deserves far more attention than it usually gets.

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Tuesday, November 25, 2025

IET Lecture by Prof. Andy Sutton: Point to Point Microwave Radio Systems

Point to point microwave radio systems have been with us for more than eighty years, yet they rarely attract much attention in an era where fibre dominates network planning and satellite systems continue to develop at pace. At a recent IET Anglian Coastal Local Network event, Prof. Andy Sutton delivered an excellent lecture that brought these fixed radio links back into the spotlight. His talk explored the history, engineering and future of microwave and millimetre wave links, reminding us why they remain essential for transmission networks in the UK and around the world.

The story begins with the national microwave radio network of the 1970s, with the BT Tower at its centre. These early deployments supported long links across the country and laid the foundation for many of the design principles still used today. While the landscape has changed significantly, the fundamentals of fixed radio communication continue to be shaped by spectrum availability, propagation characteristics and careful engineering.

Microwave links depend on a wide range of bands, from the lower 6 GHz region through to 80 GHz E-band. The choice of frequency affects everything from link length to susceptibility to atmospheric absorption. As Andy explained, a link designer must consider not just free space path loss, but also Fresnel zone clearance, rainfall intensity and antenna characteristics. The slides included a worked example that showed the impact of frequency and distance on the radius of the Fresnel zone and highlighted the need for adequate clearance to maintain availability over time.

The talk moved on to modern access radio systems, where compact rooftop nodes and all-outdoor radios have become common. These systems rely on careful use of vertical and horizontal polarisations, often enabled through XPIC technology. XPIC allows separate data streams to coexist on the same frequency using orthogonal polarisations, effectively doubling link capacity when conditions allow. This is paired with adaptive coding and modulation, which enables the radio to shift modulation schemes according to link quality. The result is a more resilient and efficient link compared to older fixed-modulation systems.

Capacity planning is a balancing act that involves radio channel bandwidth, modulation choice and the number of aggregated carriers. Wider channels and higher order modulation support multi-gigabit throughput, although this introduces penalties in transmit power and receiver sensitivity. The trade-offs are central to radio design and determine the type of equipment used, whether through a separate indoor and outdoor unit or an integrated all-outdoor system.

Andy also covered the practical elements of radio link planning, such as antenna selection, path profiling, waveguide losses and typical link budget calculations. A link planning example using a 32 GHz radio demonstrated the relationship between transmit power, antenna gain, free space loss and fade margin for a target availability of 99.99 percent. The discussion tied together the theoretical foundations with real-world engineering and illustrated how access radios are designed for street-level backhaul scenarios.

The lecture then moved to millimetre wave systems, particularly E-band radios that operate around 70 and 80 GHz. These links offer enormous capacity over shorter distances and are increasingly used for dense urban backhaul and enterprise connectivity. The slides included examples of network topologies showing how microwave and fibre can be combined to meet different deployment objectives.

A substantial part of the presentation focused on trunk or core microwave radio systems. These high-capacity, high-availability links support long distances and historically formed the backbone of national networks. Although demand for trunk links has reduced as fibre has spread, they still exist in challenging environments. In the UK, many trunk links remain operational in Scotland and island regions where terrain and geography limit fibre deployment. The lecture covered branching networks, duplexers, waveguide installations and space diversity techniques, all of which contribute to the reliability of long-haul links.

Looking ahead, research continues into new frequency bands, wider channels, higher modulation schemes and improved radio hardware. These advances will support even greater capacities, with millimetre wave links expected to reach 100 Gbps over short distances. Microwave radio may no longer be the headline technology it once was, but the field continues to push boundaries and remains an essential part of modern communication networks.

Andy’s lecture was a comprehensive tour of the past, present and future of point to point microwave systems. For anyone working in transmission, mobile networks or wireless engineering, it served as a valuable reminder of the depth of innovation in this area and its continued relevance in the broader ecosystem.

If you would like to explore the material in more detail, the slides from the event are available here and the video can be seen here. Both are well worth a look.

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